Reflecting on self an an entrepreuner

Introduction The first half of this report is written about one of the famous German entrepreneurs Klaus KobJoll. It will include personal, societal and environmental antecedent that influenced KobJolls' decisions during his life. In addition, his strengths and weaknesses will be determined and compared against my own ones. Second half of report will describe on what kind of venture I will do my Opportunity Analyses Report. It will include 5 key disciplines and 2 key personnel required to be source, as well as skills and competences needed for the start-up of the venture Background Information on Klaus KobJollBeing born on 13 June 1948, Klaus KobJoll is now one of the most successful entrepreneurs in Europe (Schindlerhof n. d. ). His business portfolio ranges from restaurants to hotel business. His entrepreneurial career began when he was 22 by opening a â€Å"Creperie rennaise† restaurant in Erlangen in 1970. From then on, he established several more restaurants and hotels in Erlangen and Nuremberg. 1 1984, he opened the most successful venture in his career, the â€Å"Landhotel Schindlerhof†. Schindlerhof has become one of the best hotels in Europe and won several awards.Klaus KobJoll himself sees business as something that is very personal and should be handled with care. He is the author of books, lectures, and articles on hotel management (CSA Celebrity Speakers n. d. ). In what ways Klaus KobJoll can be considered an entrepreneur? KobJoll is believed to be highly successful and rare entrepreneur. He deserved that status through his hard work and dedication to his ventures. The rigidly high standards that Klaus imposed on himself for running his business, earned him recognition and numerous accolades.Moreover, his unique way of dealing with mployees, giving them as much empowerment as they need to learn being independent, made his company one of the Germanys most productive places. His desire to grow and make Schindlerhof a better place broug ht the expansion of an originally 19-room hotel into a nearly 100-room hotel with $7mln turnover in 2012 (Wildberg, R 2013). He is also a member of German Hotel and restaurant Association and became first full member of the Swiss Hotelier's Association (CSA Celebrity Speakers n. d. ).Personal Influences of Klaus KobJoll The establishment of entrepreneurship is highly influenced by individual's personal raits and characteristics (Morrison, A, Rimmington, M ; Williams, C 1999). From that point of view, Timmons (cited in Morrison, A et al. 1999) suggests that leadership, along with commitment and determination are among desirable traits for an entrepreneur to possess. It can be seen that Klaus KobJoll is truly is an inspirational and motivational leader. He prompts his employees to be independent by empowering them to discover their individual talents.Klaus KobJoll sees his hotel â€Å"as a school in which they grow' (Wildberg, R 2013). In addition, being a leader Klaus KobJoll admits that every leader has a select group of qualities. He states that every man can be a manager, but not everyone can become a leader. He highlights several points such as self-confidence, need for achievement, and responsiveness to Those factors in turn correspond with entrepreneurial traits suggested by Schumpeter, McClelland, Baty and Chet et al. (cited in Morrison, A et al. 1999).

The Bridge at Dong Ha

The book The Bridge at Dong Ha written by John Miller is a narrative description of the story of how a bridge on Cua Viet river separating north and South Vietnam was destroyed by a brave American marine captain named Ripley in 1972 in US Vietnam war. The destruction delayed the movement of Vietnamese forces from the north to the south by three long years. The book narrates this adventurous event in a gripping and wonderful language. The presentation and the language of the book have made it very attractive to the readers.The Bridge at Dong Ha 3 The Bridge at Dong Ha by John Miller The book The Bridge at Dong Ha written by John Miller is the story of a genuine marine war hero of America’s war history. It also displays the dedication to duty of a person. The backdrop of the story is US Vietnamese war. There was a strong heavy bridge built by the US army several years back on the Cua Viet River in Vietnam. The bridge used to separate North Vietnam from South Vietnam.America was loosing out in the US Vietnam war and a large army of Vietnamese forces were approaching from the north to take over the south. The book The Bridge at Dong Ha has described how an officer from US marine forces named Captain Ripley destroyed this bridge with tremendous courage and aggression on Easter Sunday, 1972. It is to be noted that the destruction of this bridge that delayed the advancement of the Vietnamese army towards the south for three long years.The book has given the detailed description of his courage and it is really fascinating to go through the book. The book is an excellent narration of the events of how a single man, with his tremendous courage and dedication towards his nation destroyed the bridge and stopped the aggression of the enemy force comprising of 30,000 soldiers and 200 tanks. All these are available in the website http://www. amazon. com/Bridge-Dong-Ha-Bluejacket-Books/dp/155750587X. Every action of the event has been described in detail in the book. To quote from the website http://www. amazon.com/Bridge-Dong-Ha-Bluejacket-Books/dp/155750587X, â€Å"Capt Ripley climbs over barbed wire fences, swings across the under girding of the bridge, and fights this battle from street to foxhole around the little The Bridge at Dong Ha 4 town of Dong Ha (just a few miles from the DMZ). The writing is wonderful and gripping, putting you face-to-face with the action as it unfolds hour by hour. † While describing the heroism of Captain Ripley, the author has stated how he hand walked on the beams under the bridge, holding detonators with his teeth and brought back the burning fuses back to shore.He did all the risky jobs by himself and saved the life of his fellow soldiers from sure death. This heroic act earned him a Navy Cross in 1962. All these have been stated in the website http://www. amazon. com/Bridge-Dong-Ha-Bluejacket-Books/dp/155750587X The toughest part of the entire operation is that when Captain Ripley was in the process of detonating the bridge, continuous light machines firing was going on from the northern side of the bridge from the Vietnamese troops. Under such heavy firing, Captain Ripley completed the entire operation, risking his whole life and safeguarding the life of his other comrades.All these have been mentioned in the above mentioned website. The description not only shows his courage, but also displays his level of intelligence as he took the decision of destroying the bridge against the command from his superior officers. To quote from the above mentioned website, http://www. amazon. com/Bridge-Dong-Ha-Bluejacket-Books/dp/155750587X, â€Å"Ripley's gallant effort was especially courageous since he was acting against a command suggestion to hold the bridge for a counterattack that could not have been mounted, and South Vietnamese troops were in disarray and fleeing to the South all around theThe Bridge at Dong Ha 5 Vietnamese unit he advised. Miller's narration of this small action tend s more toward the sensational than the historical. † Though some people say that the book opened in a relatively slow note, but actually the stage was being set for a drama and all the main characters involved were introduced one by one. They include ARVN Major Le Ba Birth; his bodyguard Three Finger Jack, US Army major Jim Smock; and Birth's advisor, Ripley – the hero of the event and also the book.It has been mentioned in the above named website that Ripley was a product of American marine, Airborne, Ranger and Seal training with some added polish from British Royal Marine. The emotional side of Captain Ripley has also been nicely described by the author in the book. There was a time when he charged into the middle of a mortar fire to save the life of a little young girl. The humanity side is also displayed while narrating the events related to the behavior of the radioman, the commander of South Vietnam unit and the commander’s bodyguard.Dedication of Vietname se men towards their nation has also been described in the book. This seemed to be a very balanced approach. Another part that needs appreciation is that the author John Miller interviewed in detail Captain Ripley about the entire event while penning down the history. It has been stated in the above mentioned website that many minor incidents of the operation has been so vividly described that many civilians may not understand or feel the reason behind those actions, but only marine people can feel and judge them.Due to these factors, the reading of the book is not only fascinating, but I feel it can be described more of an adventure history type. It seemed as if an historical The Bridge at Dong Ha 6 event is presented and written in the language of adventure. This factor has made the reading of the book attractive to the readers. This can be understood from the comments by a reader in one of the reviews posted in the website http://www. amazon. com/Bridge-Dong-Ha-Bluejacket-Books/d p/155750587X.To quote from that review, â€Å"It is difficult for a reader to appreciate this without almost an engineering drawing of the undersides of the bridge. I would have loved to see drawings showing the design of the bridge, with little arrows and annotations, ‘pulled xx pounds of explosives across this girder'†. Frankly speaking, I do not consider the above quote from the reader a criticism of the book. I feel that the reader has become so involved with the drama that he is expecting a Stallone or Jacky Chan type of Hollywood thriller while reading the book.The writing of the book is so thrilling and gripping. It seemed that he is watching a movie version of the book. A diagrammatic presentation of the event would satisfy that expectation. But obviously that is not done. I have never seen any thriller novel, where the story has been described in the form of a diagram. I really appreciate the initiative taken by the author in penning down the heroic act of Capt ain Ripley so that the message of his heroism can be known by the future generations. Only a narrative description would have made reading of the book quite boring and history type.His blending of adventure and history has really made the book attractive for reading to the masses. In all the reviews, I found that readers have openly stated that they like the dramatic presentation of this 186 pages book a lot. It seemed that the author really understands the pulse of the readers. The Bridge at Dong Ha 7 Reference List 1) Customer reviews on November 10 2002, December 27 1999, August 12 2006 and also Editorial reviews: Retrieved 12th March, 2009 from

Advantages of Cooking a Food by Yourself Essay

Foods have important for human’s life. Some people choose prepare food at home, because it’s a save money. In the other hand, some people want to comfortable and save time, they choose eating ready-made meal. But, if you like to take care oneself, I can advise to you about advantages for cooking at home by yourselves. There are three advantages of home cooking; healthy, budget saving and family communicates. First of all, home cooking will make a healthier because you can choose fresh ingredients and high quality for planned menu. If you want diet or take care of eating, you should cook at your house. Such as, food’s material and seasoning for cook, it have label show nutrient information to you. It will help to you calculate volume and control the ingredient. Moreover, if you want to eat vegetarian food, you will be confident for prepare food by yourselves. For some people seriously to process cooking some food. Although, you ordering in high price restaurant, you will not surely them because chef will make a dish in kitchen that you can’t look it. In short, at present, many people see healthy as important, them pay attention to eating and exercise. So, cooking at home is a good choice for you. Second, eating at home is a great to reduce the expenses for daily food. Such as, you spend for once meal at restaurant, it be equal to you cook a two or three meal at home. Moreover, you just to pay rent on your house or apartment, and buy kitchen equipment, you should use kitchen to most benefit. All in all, if you don’t believe me, you can try to calculate how much money you can different to save when you go to restaurant with cooking at home. You will be surprised, it a good ways to save money. Last, in your family, you can use cooking activity for increase communication. Home cooking, is a fun activity when doing it with the other members in your family. For example, you can guide to prepare food for your kids. They can help to you and your children have a nice relationship. Furthermore, you can sit in front of the TV and watch an interesting TV program with family. Finally, having home-cooking at home, they are closer and share some good or bad moments happened that time. So, if you want to add relation for family, it a good reason for started to cook a food in your family. In conclusion, There are three reason support about advantage prepare of food by yourselves. It is a better choice for people who love to take care of health, save budget, and increase family relationship.

Costco Wholesale Corporation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Costco Wholesale Corporation - Essay Example As the discussion highlights even in the uncertain economic condition of 2010, Costco’s sales was 76.3 billion USD which was 9% more compared to 2009 (69.9 billion USD). Costco had tackled the recent financial crisis very effectively and had strong financial position at that time. The case will analyze the effectiveness of Costco’s strategy in achieving huge success in the retail industry. Because of the effective strategy, at present Costco has become one of the leading players and a strong competitor in the market of the USA. The basic assumption of this case study is to evaluate if the strategy of Costco is operative or not. From this paper it is clear that Costco has unique business model as compared to other competitors and it endeavors to bring on certain new aspects in the retail field. The wholesale risk-taking capability has incessantly reinvented Costco and provided the organization a competitive advantage. By the durable perseverance on the highest superiority to earn revenue, Costco has certainly gained the faith of the associates. The faith and status of Costco has permitted the company to enlarge its business. Besides, the wholesale consumer products have also contributed to the success of Costco. Costco’s business model was made on the basis of minimizing the costs and improving the care for the customers and employees . Â  Immigrant Perspective: Costco always tries to stay positive towards the cultural perception by incessantly viewing and grabbing opportunities which are ignored by other organizations. At times, other organizations are reluctant to grab those opportunities when the market condition is not in favor of them. Circular Visualization: Costco had visualized the economic recession and was aware about the changes in retail sector. When Wal-Mart’s cost leadership strategy forced numerous retail companies to make business relationships, Costco’s circular visualization had helped the company to reorganize a new retail distribution channel.

Christianti Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Christianti - Essay Example However, there are a number of other Christian churches, from a very long time ago, with different interpretations of Christianity that placed them out of favor with the traditional church, and are often forgotten in religious discussions. The Paulicians, the Bogomils, the Cathar (also, called the Albigensians) are all, likely, less familiar, examples of Christianity, but are deserving of attention. The first of these rather obscure branches of Christianity are the Paulicians. This sect is what is called a dualistic sect, which originated in Armenia in, approximately, the 7th century. The Paulician belief system was, primarily, a mixture of two Gnostic movements from the 3rd century, the Marcionism and Manichaeism. Their fundamental doctrine has two distinct principles that gave a different interpretation of traditional Christian doctrine. The first, that there is an evil god, the one responsible for the creation of the world and the ruler of this world and a good god that will rule the next world. This contrary belief, the idea of two gods, put them at serious conflict with accepted, existing, doctrine. The second principle of the Paulician is that they do not believe that Mary was the true mother of Jesus. They, also, rejected the Old Testament, as well as, the sacraments, worship, and established church hierarchy.("Paulician" ) Paulician ideology flourished through the 8th century, but were ultimately destroyed. In at least one massacre, the faith suffered a loss of, approximately, 100,000 people.(Gillis) The Paulician’s ideology spread to places like Macedonia, Greece, and Bulgaria, and, may have, contributed to other later sects, including the Bogomils. The Bogomils formed around the 10th century. The beliefs include the idea that this world was created by the devil and the rejecting the Christian conception as an example of grace. They believe in a good god that has twin sons; Jesus and Satan. However, there are many that believe that the dualistic views of Bogomils may have less to do with influences from the Paulicians, but more to do with traditional Bulgarian mythology, due to its Balkan roots, that have, since the 2nd century, of a god and his twin sons that battle in opposition to one and another. Overall the Bogomils opposed everything about the Orthodox Church. Until the 14th century the Bogomil ideology found its â€Å"congregation† but the Ottoman Conquest of the 15th century, essentially, wiped out the sect and very little more was heard from the movement again.(Weiling Feldthusen 1) The Cathar order appeared around the 12th century and flourished in some areas to the point where their beliefs and practices held the majority, even above Catholicism. This is the only sect, aside from the Knights Templar, that have managed to maintain their presence in continual research and mythology.(Hughes) This sect was, also, on occasion, referred to as the Albigensians. The Albigensians are not a different order of Chris tianity, but the specific name give to a particular sect of Cathar located in Languedoc in 1181. The Cathar, also, had another name given to them by the Catholics, the â€Å" Great Heresy.†

Sustainable Green Buildings Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Sustainable Green Buildings - Research Proposal Example Additionally, congestion of buildings is a major phenomenon in the modern construction industry, as well as inefficient use of land especially in the urban areas. Completed modern structures are responsible for increased energy consumption, loss of productive agricultural land and soil erosion as a result of runoff. Communities living in these areas are exposed to increased stress resulting from congestion and polluted sewer systems. Indeed, little can be fancied about the modern buildings. The increased negativity in the building industry has prompted leaders in the business to seek measures to curb the problem. Buildings which are environmentally friendly that efficiently and sustainably use natural resources have been researched on. This new concept is referred to as green building, which seeks to solve the problems encountered by the construction business. Structures constructed in this manner are referred to as Sustainable Green Buildings RATIONALE FOR THE RESEARCH This paper lo oks at the concept of Sustainable Green Buildings, their advantages over the modern form of buildings, products used in construction of sustainable green buildings and how sustainable they are. It will seek to find how people perceive the idea and understand how many people are willing to invest in them. LITERATURE REVIEW Definition of Sustainable Green Buildings Sinha (93) defines green building as the effective and efficient use of materials and products which is directed at reducing the overall environmental impact of the building. Sustainable green buildings refer to housing and architectural structures that are constructed using environmental friendly and resources that ensure efficiency throughout the lifecycle of the building. Successful buildings should be durable, economical, offer comfort and fit for the intended use. The life cycle of a building begins at the sitting design, construction, operation and maintenance of the building, renovation and demolition of a structure. In sustainable buildings, the undertaking of all these processes is expected to be an environmental friendly exercise (Bauer et al. 7). To successfully achieve this, the various teams involved in all stages of the lifecycle of a building should be engaged. Different teams involved in the various stages in the construction of a building include the architectural team, structural designers, contractors, engineers and the client. Designers of green buildings built the concept on minimum disturbance of the topology and the landscape, use of non-toxic materials that are recycled and equally environmental friendly and those that use renewable energy sources. The efficiency use of water is emphasized, while natural sources of green energy such as solar and wind power are being exploited (Furr 56). Materials used in Construction of Sustainable Green Buildings Green products used in the construction industry necessarily do not have to be 100% green. Wood that has been treated with different toxic chemicals to make it durable cannot be referred to as a green product since it has health hazards among the people (Robeznieks 10). Different considerations are made when a product is classified as either green or not. Products that have been salvaged or recycled, such as the agricultural products are regarded as green products as it is economical to recycle products than producing new ones. Products which

Evaluate an argument from the Bouwsma reading Essay

Evaluate an argument from the Bouwsma reading - Essay Example Therefore, this is not a valid argument since the premise is weak (Bouwsma 141). .The second argument states that if we are able to detect the deception through the five senses, then we are not deceived about the world around. Bouwsma states that if the evil genius decides to deceive us and we do not notice, we will be deceived. For instance, if he misleads us in to thinking that everything that exists in nature such as people, flowers, and trees is mere paper, we will be deceived if we do not use the five senses. This is because the evil genius uses illusions by making things look and sound like the real things. He creates illusions because he knows they will easily make us mistake things for what they are not; thus, deceiving us. Bouwsma (144) gives an example of Tom, who experiences the illusion that everything around him is just paper. However, tom is not deceived because he to detects the illusion and differentiate the real flowers from paper. The plan of the evil genius was to make paper look so much like flowers that Tom would not tell the difference, but Tom recognized the difference. Thus, if we are able to detect deception using the five senses, then we are not deceived about the world around. Therefore, were can conclude that this argument is valid because the premise is true (Bouwsma 145). .The third argument states that if we are not able to detect the deception through the five senses, then we are not deceived about the world around. As Bouwsma states, the evil genius uses illusions to deceive people, and for us to detect these illusions we must be able to use the five senses; thus, detect deception. If Tom would be able to detect the illusion in these things, then he would have been deceived. However, according to, the evil genius can detect illusion. For this reason, he sees the illusion and can sense the real thing, which human beings cannot sense. Thus, the

Obesity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 9

Obesity - Essay Example Children and teenagers who are obese face a veer of probable health complications, as they grow older, as well as an amplified menace of diabetes, heart diseases, and some cancers. As if that is not adequate, obesity may negatively affect young people's long-term college and profession prospects, also. In the past few years, an irregular yet emergent body of research has recommended that obesity be coupled with poorer academic performance starting as early as kindergarten. Studies have variously discovered that obese pupils and especially girls tend to have poorer test scores as compared to their slimmer classmates, are more probable to be held back a grade, and are less expected to go on to higher learning levels like college. The most recent such research, put in print recently in the journal of Child Development, followed several kids from kindergarten in the course of fifth grade and discovered that those who were obese all the way through that episode scored poor on math tests t han their non-obese peers.

Christianity and the world at large Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Christianity and the world at large - Essay Example Its main aim can be summarized in the following ways: 1. Abolition of property in land and application of all rents of land to public purposes; 2. A heavy progressive or graduated income tax; 3. Abolition of all rights of inheritance; 4. Confiscation of the property of all emigrants and rebels; 5. Centralization of credit in the hands of the state, by means of a national bank with State capital and an exclusive monopoly; 6. Centralization of the means of communication and transport in the hands of the State; 7. Extension of factories and instruments of production owned by the State, the bringing into cultivation of waste-lands, and the improvement of the soil generally in accordance with a common plan; 8. Equal liability of all to work and establishment of industrial armies, especially for agriculture; 9. Combination of agriculture with manufacturing industries, gradual abolition of all the distinction between town and country by a more equable distribution of the populace over the c ountry; and 10. Free education for all children in public schools, abolition of children's factory labor in its present form and combination of education with industrial production (http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch02.htm).3 Since communism is against any form of subjugation, the Church is considered its enemy for a church has leaders, even a hierarchy of elders who would oversee the flock and make sure that no one goes astray. Charles Darwin's teaching of Natural Selection is anchored on the principle of preservation. According to him, natural selection, "on the principle of qualities being inherited at corresponding ages, can modify the egg, seed, or young, as easily as the adult."4 Plainly speaking, this...The likes of Abraham Lincoln and George Washington led the United States of America anchoring on Biblical truths and Christianity as a whole. America still looks back and acknowledges that some of the glorious past of this country were under the leadership of these two figures.Christianity in general should put itself in its proper place and not quarrel with other people insisting only on what it thinks is right. The first step is accepting that people of all ages and nations vary in many ways and one of these is their belief and principle in life. By learning to accept others the way they are leads to a better understanding of why they are so different and why they behave in the way they do. Having a n open mind can lead to less prejudice and judgmental spirit. The second step is respect. Since people are free to choose what they should believe in, Christianity should not impose on others what it thinks is right or wrong. In other words, to respect other’s religious conviction will lead to a more harmonious relationship. It has been said that man is not supposed to do to others what he does not want others to do to him. In this way, if Christianity seeks respect, it should also respect others. Finally, Christianity must not cease to be vigilant. It should continue to be a watchdog, a spiritual eye to the government and the nation as a whole. Although it may not force itself, its very presence will shed light to the world around it and will lead others to know the difference.

Robert Rauschenberg's tactics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Robert Rauschenberg's tactics - Essay Example Abstract expressionism refers to the art movement that emerged and gained impetus after the Second World War. It was considered as the first most important US movement towards the achievement of a global influence and power. The movement was aimed at positioning New York at the heart of the western world art; a position that was previously held by Paris. At the time that Abstract expressionism was gaining popularity in the 1950s, art in the form of combined manufactured goods was also on the rise. Artists had started to bring about changes in their art, inculcating household items and items of daily use into artwork. This type of art is seen in the works of Robert Rauschenberg, more specifically in his combines. His combines were the classic precursors of the Pop Art movement that Rauschenberg became interested in after the 1950s. Rauschenberg was an artist who entered art at the time Abstract expressionism was in its heyday after the Second World War. However, he came to reject that form of art. Leo Steinberg refers to Rauschenberg's art as a flatbed image surface since his art came to compromise of ethnic and cultural pictorial representations and related objects. Such a form of imagery and art were in an open conflict with the previous forms of art practiced earlier which fell under the category of modernism and modernism. Rauschenberg was known for making use of found pictures in his work but he juxtaposed these images with real objects. His artwork is regarded as Neo-Dada.... His combines were the classic precursors of the Pop Art movement that Rauschenberg became interested in after the 1950s. Rauschenberg was an artist who entered art at the time Abstract expressionism was in its heyday after the Second World War. However he came to reject that form of art. Leo Steinberg refers to Rauschenberg's art as a flatbed image surface since his art came to compromise of ethnic and cultural pictorial representations and related objects. Such a form of imagery and art were in an open conflict with the previous forms of art practiced earlier which fell under the category of modernism and premodernism. Rauschenberg was known for making use of found pictures in his work but he juxtaposed these images with real objects. His artwork is regarded as Neo-Dada since it incorporates found elements as well as real objects. The found elements were initially used by artists such as Marcel Duchamp and Kurt Schwitters. Rauschenberg was motivated by the works of Schwitters and it was this inspiration that drove him to walk around neighborhoods, looking for objects to incorporate into his paintings. He was of the point of view that his combines should at least be as attention-grabbing as events occurring outside the window are. The reason for such an assertion was that he felt that since he was making use of real objects in his paintings and collages, the artwork would resemble the real world more once it is completed. Rauschenberg worked with collages extensively and he built upon them and diversified the elements that could be incorporated into them by the process of silkscreening photographs.3 This opened a vista of opportunities and choices for him. He used pictures

Video games and violnce Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Video games and violnce - Essay Example ing intensities of aggressiveness; the ‘Tetrisc’ that was non-aggressive, the ‘Shareware’ that was moderate and the ‘Sega Mega’ that was highly aggressive (Scott 123). The study then measured the aggressiveness before and after exposure. The author hypothesized that participants should present a linear increase in aggressiveness after exposure. However, from his study, he notes that there exists no straightforward correlation of the variable and claims that video games may lack influential effects as most scholars account. Indeed, the author observes that we should not generalize the negative effect of such exposures. He also notes that a critical factor to account for when accessing the influence of these games is individual differences (Scott 131). The author uses rational methods in developing an informative and a persuasive piece. Initially, the author’s thesis states that the video games exposure and aggressiveness should have a linear correlation. The author manages to examine his thesis effectively by measuring the group’s aggressiveness under varying backgrounds. Changes in the group aggressiveness would signify the effect of exposure on individuals (Ferguson 380). It is common knowledge that an increase in figures would support the author’s thesis. Tactically, when the figures fail to support study’s thesis, the author keenly notes that the games exposure lacks an obvious effect on observed violence. The study’s ground is acceptable since the study utilizes practical measures in examining the subject. Apparently, if video games effects on violence, then we expect to realize a significance difference on the group’s aggressiveness after exposure. The study employs reliable and persuasive evidence to prove its position. This is evident in the research’s idea of setting the group against games with varying aggressive intensities. As such, we expect to observe maximum aggressiveness when the group is exposed to highly violent video

Referring to both pharmaceutical Essay Example for Free

Referring to both pharmaceutical Essay Referring to both pharmaceutical and tobacco companies, explain how transnational corporations can influence the health of people in countries at different stages of development (15) Both pharmaceutical and tobacco companies can be transnational corporations and some wield enormous international power and influence covering over one hundred countries with billions of pounds worth of profit; in 2009, GlaxoSmithKline had a net income of approximately. 6 billion! Some corporations have, for example, used their profits to help fight widespread diseases in less economically developed countries (LEDCs), such as GlaxoSmithKlines help in the fight against Lymphatic Filariasis in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Some have set up health programmes in more economically developed countries (MEDCs) to reduce common health problems in these areas, such as different types of cancer. However, some corporations only supply people with the means to deteriorate their health, such as some tobacco companies like British American Tobacco, especially in LEDCs, but both pharmaceutical tobacco companies play an important role in the health of the worlds people. A pharmaceutical company is a company, which develops, produces and markets drugs licenced for use as medications, so obviously these companies play a huge role in the health of people worldwide as they provide medication against diseases that would harm health. In LEDCs, medicines can be very expensive and in some countries in the world, in sub-Saharan Africa for example, peoples incomes may be so minuscule that they may not even be able to afford food let alone medicine. Pharmaceutical companies make two types of drug: branded and generic. Branded drugs are three to thirty times more expensive than generic drugs and so in LEDCs they are out of the majoritys reach, but they are patented and their chemical composition cannot be copied for twenty years; this means that should another company wish to reproduce the specific drug so it can be made available at a cheaper price for the market in LEDCs, it is not possible due to the patent. Therefore this has negatively affected peoples health in LEDCs, as the majority of deaths from disease in LEDCs (excluding HIV/AIDS) are curable with modern-day medication but it is how the medication is sold by pharmaceutical companies that prevents medication getting to these countries. Cheaper drugs to combat these common diseases cannot be produced as some pharmaceutical companies patented their branded drugs to increase their profits and eliminate competition from rival pharmaceutical companies. Although pharmaceutical companies may be harming the health of populations in LEDCs by patenting their drugs for twenty years, many of their drugs are manufactured in factories that are located within LEDCs as they are often far cheaper than producing drugs in MEDCs as wage regulations are much stricter and land is much more expensive. Pharmaceutical companies want to manufacture as much product as they can to maximise profit and so, for example, Bayer HealthCare, whose headquarters is in Germany, manufacture drugs in Morocco, Indonesia, Columbia, Guatemala and El Salvador all of which are LEDCs. The fact that vast quantities of drugs are produced in these countries means that the pharmaceutical companies will need a large, low-skilled workforce to do menial jobs in the factory. In comparison to salaries in MEDCs, the workers in LEDCs are paid far less, but it is much more than many people would have been able to earn before their jobs in the factories, as many of these LEDCs rely heavily on agriculture which is often a very low-paid form of employment. With this higher salary, people may be able to afford healthcare and the more expensive branded drugs that they are helping to manufacture. Some workers healthcare may even be partly paid for by their employer, therefore helping better the health of the population in LEDCs. Pharmaceutical companies, such as GlaxoSmithKline and Bayer HealthCare, are thought to have a social and moral responsibility to help in the fight against diseases if they find a cure for them during their drug research and development. Diseases such as Malaria, Yellow Fever, Tuberculosis and African Sleeping Sickness are all curable with drugs produced by pharmaceutical companies. However, these companies are in a widely capitalist industry that wants to maximise profits wherever possible and providing free medical care for people in LEDCs is often not done, but GlaxoSmithKline and Bayer HealthCare have started a revolution in this field by showing that by using only a small fraction of their vast profits they can help improve the health of millions of people worldwide. GlaxoSmithKline, for example, discovered albendazole in 1972 and was found to be effective against roundworms and tapeworms which caused Lymphatic Filariasis (LF), a disease that causes permanent disability and currently 120 million people are infected with the disease in Asia, Africa and South America. Since 2008, GlaxoSmithKline donated over 1. 4 billion albendazole treatments to 48 LEDCs. Their aim is to donate as much albendazole as required to treat the 1 billion people in 83 countries at risk from LF. They also joined the Global Alliance to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis (GAELF) in 2000 as a founding member and work together with governments as well as non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to eliminate LF. This is just one example of the work that pharmaceutical companies have done in LEDCs to improve the health of the inhabitants by providing free medication at the cost of a small proportion of their multi-billion pound annual profit. Pharmaceutical companies have had a large presence in LEDCs in recent history and so have many tobacco companies, traced back to trade and colonial links in the latter part of the millennium. Tobacco companies feel much less of an obligation to help eradicate disease than pharmaceutical companies do and for that reason few tobacco companies have invested, at the expense of their profit, in health schemes to aid the disease-stricken in LEDCs. They are much more interested in securing a long-term community of consumers demanding their product. British American Tobacco (BAT) in Africa is a prime example of this capitalist, profit-driven attitude in LEDCs. In Malawi, BAT advocated the sale of single cigarette sticks, which were very popular with children as they were so cheap; a single cigarette costs one fifth of the price of a single biscuit, which at least has some nutritional value. BAT used a single-stick campaign to try and encourage as many young people as possible to start smoking as they knew that once they had tried a few they would eventually become addicted to their product, which is wondrous news for their profit, as their body tells them that they need a cigarette and so they buy more of their product and for this reason, 80 000 to 100 000 children start smoking worldwide every day. Advertising to children in this way ensured that BAT maintained a constant group of consumers to replace the smokers that either, more likely, died from smoking-related diseases or stopped smoking. Smoking causes many types of cancer, such as lung, throat, kidney and liver cancers, and emphysema is also a common problem and every eight seconds someone dies from tobacco use. Although, like pharmaceutical companies, they provide employment for local people, they are often only few tobacco plant farmers and are paid very little and do not receive the healthcare that pharmaceutical companies provide. So, in LEDCs tobacco companies are having a very bad effect as they cause many life-threatening diseases and their advertising campaigns show little sign of wanting to help eradicate the problem. As well as having a presence in LEDCs, pharmaceutical and tobacco corporations have presence in MEDCs as well. Pharmaceutical corporations headquarters are often based in MEDCs, such as the headquarters of Bayer HealthCare in Germany and GlaxoSmithKline in the UK. They often do most of their research and development in MEDCs, as they have easier access to highly-developed facilities and laboratories to conduct experiments. Much like in LEDCs, pharmaceutical companies provide employment in MEDCs, but this is often much more skilled work in research and lab work and is highly paid unlike in LEDCs where are less strict wage restrictions. The majority of people in MEDCs have a high income in comparison with those in LEDCs and so can therefore afford the branded drugs that pharmaceutical companies produce and cleverly market. The sale of these branded drugs in MEDCs to consumers is where most profits of pharmaceutical companies are made. They are not inaccessible as they were in MEDCs and for that reason the health of the population in MEDCs is often much better and the generic drugs provided to health services in MEDCs are often quite cheap and are easily accessible reducing the level of disease in MEDCs. Even though branded drugs might make cheaper, generic copies of these drugs impossible, because of peoples higher disposable income, people can afford the branded drugs and are willing to pay extra money for the knowledge that is produced by a genuine pharmaceutical company and not a supermarket spin-off. Much like the social and moral responsibility pharmaceutical companies felt in LEDCs, they are also feel obligated to do something about the common diseases in MEDCs as well, despite the lower level of disease. A huge health problem in MEDCs are STIs and STDs among youths and costs healthcare services lots of money to treat these diseases. In the UK in 2008 there were 123,018 new diagnoses of chlamydia in clinics: a record number. Additionally from 1999 to 2008 there were 11 times the number of primary and secondary diagnoses of syphilis. The Bayer HealthCare pharmaceutical company started a family planning initiative in 1961 and now has had family-planning clinics in 130 countries for 50 years. They also created World Contraception Day, which is a day every year to accentuate the importance of contraception. On this day there are fund-raising events, radio talk shows, competitions and events in nightclubs and discos. Tobacco companies are also present in MEDCs as would be expected and have a large market. Currently around 20% of adults in the USA are smokers and there are large markets in many countries. Many of the same health effects as in LEDCs are found in smokers in MEDCs, such as cancer and emphysema, although treatment of these diseases may be better in MEDCs it still costs the health services many millions of pounds to treat these diseases, which could be classified as diseases of affluence as they are brought upon yourself. In the UK smoking costs. 13. 74 billion to the government overall! Cigarettes contain many carcinogens and these will obviously adversely harm health of smokers, but although advertising of cigarettes is banned in many MEDCs the already implemented addiction to cigarettes does not need advertising to continue. Fewer people start smoking in MEDCs than LEDCs as advertising is banned and fewer children start smoking as they are well aware of the health effects smoking has as many MEDCs make it compulsory to learn about the effects it has to reduce the cost to the government. Much like with pharmaceutical companies, tobacco companies provide employment in MEDCs, but it is mostly administrative work in offices as production occurs mainly in LEDCs where there are favourable growing conditions for the tobacco plant. Due to MEDCs laws, tobacco companies must provide some level of healthcare and so in that instance they help better the health of their employees, but again they do little to help with international health problems as they are more concerned with their profit. In conclusion, both tobacco and pharmaceutical companies have great influence on the health of people in countries at different stages of development, whether they be an MEDC or an LEDC. Producing drugs and medicines and health aid provided by pharmaceutical companies are probably the largest positive influences either of these types of companies have on the health of populations. Pharmaceutical companies are generally positively influencing the health of people in countries at different stages of development, but in different ways either by providing aid or employment or through the capitalist nature of the industry they are in. Whereas tobacco companies are trying to maintain a large consumer pool for their product, whilst adversely affecting peoples health due to the carcinogenic nature of tobacco and cigarette products and are therefore negatively influencing the health of people in almost exactly the same way in countries of all stages of development. As tobacco companies have less social and moral responsibility they are not motivated to help in the fight against widespread diseases, like the pharmaceutical companies are.

Slavery And Plantation In Trinidad And Tobago

Slavery And Plantation In Trinidad And Tobago Slavery and Plantations have always been linked, driven by economic objectives (Williams 1994), from the earliest period of sugarcane cultivation in the Caribbean. Despite the complexity of the events and circumstances that created this relationship, sugar growth and slavery both were booming during the relatively peaceful early years of the 18th century. The European need for sugar had been increasing, and Englands sugar demands led the pack. The British islands like TT were a mono-crop society, with few settlers growing anything but sugarcane The Business of Slavery The Triangular Trade is a term commonly used in discussions of the slave trade. Slaves would be brought from Africa to the plantations, which would send sugar and other local goods to Europe, who would in turn send goods to Africa. The goods usually sent to Africa were guns and other manufactured items because there was no industry in Africa. In the West Indian islands like TT, however, the selling of slaves was an important part of the economy. The need for more slaves was always greater than the market could provide, and the West Indian companies were opened up in the 1700s to outside trade to help provide additional slaves to colonies that produced sugar. The French encouraged this trade on their islands by exempting slaves from most import and export taxes. Life on Plantations Working Conditions: Slave Labour in Plantations the toughest season, a season of toil from sunrise to twilight, bare ankles and calves stung by cowitch, knotted muscles slashed by cane leaves that cut like straight razors, backs split open by the whip The plantation land consisted of cane-fields, provision grounds, woodland and pasture. Each planter preferred to have more than 200 acres of cane land. Provision grounds were used by the slaves to cultivate root crops, plantains and vegetables for food. The woodland provided lumber and firewood and the pasture was used for grazing cattle (Handler 1965). The cane fields had either newly planted canes or ratoons. The ratoons were new shoots growing from old cane roots which were left in the ground after a previous crop of cane was harvested. Usually a ratoon field was less productive. A typical sugar estate had factory buildings such as the mill, boiling house and curing house. Around these factory buildings there were other smaller buildings and sheds in which, blacksmiths, wheelwrights, carpenters, masons, coopers and other artisan slaves worked. There would also be a small hospital for sick slaves, and a small jail which kept slaves who were being punished. There were storage rooms for tools and supplies and sheds which sheltered livestock or stored cane trash or bagasse which was used as fuel. Not far from the factory buildings were small houses in which the European managers and supervisors lived. They were generally overseers, book-keepers, skilled craftsmen and office staff. In the biggest house lived the estate owner. The slave quarters were some distance away from the homes of the managers. A work day consisted of 15-16 hours a day, during harvest time and, could go on during harvest and milling for 16-18 per week 7 days a week and according to Stampp (1956) the slaves were given the task to prepare the land for planting. Their normal working day began before daybreak and ended after sunset. They cleared the grass and bushes by weeding and burning (children between the ages of six and ten might be active as water carriers while children between the ages of ten and twelve were organized into gangs and put to weeding). Cane holes were dug and into these cane tops were planted. As the cane grew, gangs of slaves manured the field and weeded bushes that sprang up around the cane plants. Female slaves did much of the weeding and the manuring. After 12 to 15 months the cane was now mature. The field was set afire to burn off the leaves from the cane stalks and at the same time to get rid of snakes which lived there. The field slaves, using cutlasses, then cut the cane stalks, packed them in bundles and loaded them on to ox-drawn carts which transported them to the mill. At the mill, the cane was crushed and the juice flowed through gutters to large metal containers. The cane trash was removed and stored for use as fuel for the boilers. The juice in the large containers was clarified by heating and the addition of a small quantity of lime. This clarified juice was then ladled into a copper boiler in which it was boiled. After a while, the juice from this copper boiler was ladled into a smaller boiler and was boiled again and then still further in a yet smaller boiler. By then, it had changed into sticky syrup which was allowed to cool, and then poured into wooden hogsheads standing on beams in the curing house. Through small holes at the bottom of the hogsheads, molasses seeped out and was collected in containers set below the beams. After about three weeks, the remaining syrup in the hogsheads crystallised to form sugar. The sugar remained in the hogshea ds which were later packed into ships for export to Europe. Some estates also manufactured rum by fermenting juice from the first boiling and about the same quantity of molasses. Almost all of this specialised work carried out in the manufacture of sugar and rum was done by skilled artisan slaves who were highly valued by their owners. During the milling season, slaves worked in shifts throughout the day and night. Even after the crop season was over, the estate owner did not allow his slaves to be idle. The fields had to be prepared for the new crop, weeding and manuring of the ratoons had to be done, and repairs to drainage and irrigation canals, fences and buildings had to carry out. Work was even found for children from the age of six years old. They collected firewood, cut grass to feed farm animals and fetched drinking water to slaves working in the fields. The plantation owners did not want their slaves to involve themselves in idle conversation since they felt that the discontented slaves may use the occasion to plot rebellion. Punishments While each plantation had its own set of social, religious, and labour codes, all had the basic format for an instilled hierarchy in which the slave master reigned as gad. He maintained the element of slave misery, by controlling the degree of pain (Starobin 1974). Treatments were given such as mutilation, branding, chaining, and murder which were supposedly regulated or prohibited by law. Whippings, beatings, drownings, and hangings were as unpredictable as they were gruesome. It was clear to plantation owners that slavery could not survive without the whip (even though owners were forbidden to deliberately kill or maliciously mutilate a slave). Males and females were whipped indiscriminately. The severity of whipping depended on the number of strokes to the type of whip. Fifteen to twenty lashes were generally sufficient, but they could range much higher. Other items used for punishments included stocks, chains, collars, and irons. It was also commonplace that women could be raped by the owner of the plantation, his sons or, any white male. Methods of Control The White plantation owners in TT used various methods to maintain complete control over their slaves. Their principal method was that of divide and rule. Members of the same tribe were separated on different plantations to prevent communication between them. The aim behind this was to prevent any plans to rebel if they were together. This separation, however, created a problem of communication, since the plantation would have different groups of slaves speaking different languages. Therefore, the planters had to find a way to communicate with their slaves. Soon a new language, known as Creole, developed and this became a common tongue among the slaves. When the British took control of the twin islands in the nineteenth century, English words were injected into the language and it became the basis of the Creolised language. Slaves were also prevented from practising their religions. Quite a few slaves were Muslims while many others had their own tribal beliefs. But since the Christian planters saw non-Christians as pagans, they made sure that the slaves could not gather to worship in the way they were accustomed when they lived in Africa. Later Christian missionaries were permitted on the plantations and they were allowed to preach to the slaves on Sundays. In time, many of them were converted to Christianity; it was the general feeling that the converted slaves became docile and was not willing to support rebellion on the plantations. Another means of control was the creation of a class system among the slaves. Field slaves formed the lowest group, even though some of them had special skills. The lowest ranking slaves, the backbone of the plantation economy, were the field slaves. The field slaves were divided into gangs according to their physical strength and ability, with the strongest and fittest males and females in the first gang. The incentive used to encourage hard work, was lashes of the cart whip, which were freely administered by the drivers, who were privileged slaves under the overseers supervision. Higher up the slave hierarchy were the artisan slaves such as blacksmiths, carpenters and masons, who were often hired out by the planters. These slaves also had opportunities to earn money for themselves on various occasions. Still higher up in this class system were the drivers who were specially selected by the White planters to control the other slaves. The domestic or house slave had a special place in this arrangement, and because they worked in the masters house and sometimes receiving special favours from the master, they held other slaves in contempt. Usu ally, the slaves in the lowest rung of this social ladder were the ones who rebelled and often domestic slaves were the ones who betrayed them by reporting the plots to their master. Then there were divisions based on colour. In the early days, it was relatively easy for a pure African to rise to the level of a driver. But mixtures occurred through the birth of children as a result of unions between White men and black women (mulatto), White men and mulatto women (mestee) and mulatto men and black women (sambo). Some slaves of succeeding generations thus had lighter complexions, and the White planters discriminated in favour of them. These slaves with White fathers or White relatives were placed in positions above those of the field slaves. This was the beginning of colour discrimination in the Guyanese society. Of course, in all of this, the Europeans the Whites occupied the highest rung of the social ladder and they found willing allies among the mixed or coloured population who occupied the intermediate levels. The pure Africans remained at the lowest level Women and Slavery in the Plantations According to Bush (1990; 33) the primary reason for the presence of women in TT during the time of slavery was due to their labour value. In the early days of slavery, plantation owners attempted to produce healthy patterns of reproduction and encourage marriage, but found it was economically illogical to do so. Instead, it was more profitable to purchase new slaves from Africa (until the continued supply of female slaves being delivered from across the Atlantic was threatened by abolitionist pressure in the eighteenth century). Girls worked on estates from the early age of four. Occupations for girls between the ages of 12-19 varied from field work, to stock work, to domestic work, to washing e.g. clothing, dishes, etc. ( Reddock 1985 pg. 64 ), . Other forms of work for mature women included midwife, doctoress, and housekeeper. European plantation owners generally regarded most slave women as suitable for field work, which consisted of jobs such as digging holes for canes, weeding, and hoeing. In Jamaica, the majority of women between the ages of 19 and 54 were working in the fields. By the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, there were more women working in the field than men due to their lower mortality rates. Despite the common stereotype whereby men are stronger and more physically capable than women, it can be argued that women were as important, if not more important, to field work during the period of slavery in TT. The importance of women in the plantation economy is reflected in the price of female slaves between 1790 and the end of the slave trade. The price for a new male slave was approximately  £50- £70, while the price for a new female slave was approximately  £50- £60. (Bush, 1996:33) Apart from occupations such as doctoress, midwife, and housekeeper, which were considered to be higher employment positions for slave women during the time, the slave elite was nearly entirely made up of men. Women were confined to fighting for lower positions in the socio-economic hierarchy and were always excluded from the more prestigious and skilled jobs (i.e. carpentry). Among the limited amount of occupations available to Trinbagonian slave women, the most prestigious job was found to be nursing. One way in which women slaves would occasionally amass income and resources for themselves was through sex trade (Morrissey 1989 pg. 69). This was a common way for women slaves to save money for freedom, particularly in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in TT. The majority of enslaved domestic workers in towns were expected to support themselves through prostitution. Culture of Slavery and Plantation life Home Plantation slaves were housed in slaves cabins. Small, rudely built of logs with clapboard sidings, with clay chinking. Floors were packed dirt. They were leaky and drafty and the combination of wet, dirt, and cold made them diseased environments. On the plantation, the slaves were housed in buildings which were some distance away from the masters house. Most of these slave houses had thatched roofs and walls of old boards or of wattle and mud. The floor was the earth itself and there were no furniture except some rudimentary pieces that the slaves managed to make. Clothing Slaves were not well-clothed; they had inadequate clothing for people engaged in heavy labour all year. Children would dress in long shirts. Men possessed little besides with two shirts and two cotton pants. Women were provided with an insufficient amount of cloth and made their own clothes. The cloth was cheap material, produced in England that was dubbed Negro cloth. The slaves also obtained a clothing allowance roughly every year. The men received a coarse woollen jacket, a hat, about six yards of cotton, and a piece of canvas to make a pair or two of trousers. Women received the same allowance as the men, but children received none. The children remained naked until they were about nine years old, or were given cast-off clothing that their parents managed to find or were able to purchase. Food The food was generally adequate in bulk, but imbalanced and monotonous. Typical food allowance was a peck of corn meal and three to four pounds of salt pork or bacon per week per person. This diet could be supplemented by vegetables from their gardens, by fish or wild game, and molasses (not usually). The slaves prepared their own food and carried it out to the field in buckets. While the slaves were provided with certain foodstuffs by the master, they raised their own subsistence crops of vegetables, plantains and root crops on small garden plots that the master allowed them to use. However, they could only do their personal farming on Sundays when they had no work on the plantation. They also took the opportunity to fish on Sundays in the nearby canals, the rivers or the ocean. Each adult slave was given one pound of salted cod fish every Sunday by the plantation owner. The salted cod fish was imported from North America. A child slave was given a smaller allocation. On special Chr istian holidays, there was an additional allowance of about a pound of beef or pork, some sugar and a quantity of rum. Religion The general view held by the plantation owners was that the African slaves did not hold to a system of beliefs that could be described as a religion (Mbiti 1969). At best so the members of the plantocracy and the church that served them felt their beliefs amounted to nothing more than heathenish superstition. Not a few of them, perhaps, felt that the Africans were incapable of religious sentiment. But the Africans held religious beliefs derived from their homeland. It may be useful to note that some of the slaves, particularly these who came from the Fula-speaking area of Senegambia, were Muslims. The practice of the planters of separating tribesmen from one another, and of discouraging the assembling of slaves for any purpose whatsoever, was not calculated to allow Islam to survive. Again, the small number of African Muslims that came to plantations in TT lacked the leadership of Imams and the possession of the Quran. Then, too, the plantation life did not lend itself for long pra yers at fixed times, worship on a set day, fasting at prescribed periods, or feasting on holidays which did not coincide with those observed by the plantocracy. On the other hand, indigenous African religious beliefs, which became labelled as obeah, survived the difficulties of estate life. But these beliefs underwent significant changes although they remained clearly African in structure (Saraceni 1996). Three factors were mainly responsible for these changes. In the first place, African religious ideas were capable of modification in response to the new circumstance of estate life. Secondly, the practice of African religion was frowned upon by estate authorities. This meant that the religion could only be practised secretly and irregularly. The result has been that some aspects of African religious practices withered away while others lost their nationality and language and became garbled. Thirdly, the exposure to Christianity led not only to the conversion of Blacks to that religion, but also to the overlapping of African and Christian beliefs. Free Time Except for earnings enjoyed by the artisan slaves, most of the slaves depended on obtaining money by selling surplus produce from their provision grounds and also the sale of livestock that they reared. On Sundays, village markets were held and the slaves seized the opportunity to barter or sell their produce. On these occasions the slaves made purchases of a few pieces of clothing and other items for their homes. The Sunday markets were also occasions when slaves from different plantations were able to socialise and to exchange news and pieces of gossip. There were also times of recreation. These were usually at the end of the crop and at Christmas and on public holidays when the slaves were allowed to hold dances which had to end by midnight.

Implementation Of Clustering Algorithm K Mean K Medoid Computer Science Essay

Implementation Of Clustering Algorithm K Mean K Medoid Computer Science Essay Data Mining is a fairly recent and contemporary topic in computing. However, Data Mining applies many older computational techniques from statistics, machine learning and pattern recognition. This paper explores two most popular clustering techniques are the k-means k-medoids clustering algorithm. However, k-means algorithm is cluster or to group your objects based on attributes into K number of group and  k-medoids  is a  related to the  K-means  algorithm. These algorithms are based on the k partition algorithms and both attempt to minimize  squared error. In contrast to the K-means algorithm K-medoids chooses data points as centres. The algorithms have been developed in Java, for integration with Weka Machine Learning Software. The algorithms have been run with two dataset Facial palsy and Stemming. It is having been shown that the algorithm is generally faster and more accurate than other clustering algorithms. Data Mining derives its name from the similarities between searching for valuable business information in a large database (for example, finding linked products in gigabytes of store scanner data) and mining a mountain for a vein of valuable ore.[1] Both process requires either sifting through an immense amount of material. Or intelligently probing it to find exactly where the value resides. Data Mining Data mining is also known as knowledge mining. Before it was named DATA MINING, it was called data collection, data warehousing or data access. Data mining tools predicts the behaviours of the models that are loaded in the data mining tools (like Weka) for analysis, allowing making predicted analysis, of the model. Data mining provides hands-on and practical information. Data mining is the most powerful tool available now. Data mining can be used for modelling in fields such as artificial intelligence, and neural network. What does it do? Data mining take the data which exists in unrelated patterns and designs, and uses this data to predict information which can be compared in terms of statistical and graphical results. Data mining distil / filters the information from the data that is inputted and final model is generated. Clustering What is cluster analysis? Unlike classification and prediction, which analyse class-labeled data objects, clustering analyses data objects without consulting a known class label. A 2-D plot of customer data with respect to customer locations in a city, showing three data clusters. Each cluster center is marked with a +.[6] Clustering is the technique by which like objects are grouped together. The objects are clustered or grouped based on the principle of maximizing the intra class similarity and minimizing the interclass similarity. i.e. clusters of the objects are made so that the clusters have resemblance in comparison to one another, but are very divergent to objects in other clusters. Each cluster that is made can be viewed as a class of objects, from which rules can be derived. [6] Problem overview The problem at hand is able to correctly cluster a facial palsy dataset which is given by our lecturer. This section will provide an overview of dataset being analysed, and description about dataset that we use in this implementation. Data Set 1.3.1.1 Facial_Palsy_svmlight_format Facial Palsy data is for binary classification. +1 severe facial palsy faces -1 Non-severe or normal faces 66 Principal components generated from 5050 Hamming distance images 1.3.1.2 A6_df2_stemming__svm: Attributes: 100 A6_df2_stemming__svm_100.dat +1 Open question -1 Closed question Section 2 Methodology This section will firstly discuss the methodology behind K-means k-medoids algorithm. It is than followed by steps to implement k-means and k medoids algorithms. How many input, output and what are the steps to perform k-means and k-medoids. 2.1 K-mean K-means clustering starts with a single cluster in the centre, as the mean of the data. Here after the cluster is split into 2 clusters and the mean of the new cluster are iteratively trained. Again these clusters are split and the process goes on until the specified numbers of the cluster are obtained. If the specified number of cluster is not a power of two, then the nearest power of two above the number specified is selected and then the least important clusters are removed and the remaining clusters are again iteratively trained to get the final clusters. If the user specifies the random start, random cluster is generated by the algorithm, and it goes ahead by fitting the data points into these clusters. This process is repeated many times in loops, for as many random numbers the user chooses or specifies and the best value is found at the end. The output values are displayed. The drawbacks of the clustering method are that, the measurement of the errors or the uncertainty is ignored associated with the data. Algorithm: The k-means algorithm for partitioning, where each clusters centre is represented by the mean value of the objects in the cluster. Input: k: the number of clusters, D: a data set containing n objects. Output: A set of k clusters. Method: (1) Arbitrarily choose k objects from D as the initial cluster centers; (2) Repeat (3) reassign each object to the cluster to which the object is the most similar, based on the mean value of the objects in the cluster; (4) Update the cluster means, i.e., calculate the mean value of the objects for each cluster; (5) Until no change; Where E is the sum of the square error for all objects in the data set; p is the point in space representing a given object; and mi is the mean of cluster Ci (both p and mi are multidimensional). In other words, for each object in each cluster, the distance from the object to its cluster center is squared, and the distances are summed. This criterion tries to make the resulting k clusters as compact and as separate as possible.[2] Clustering of a set of objects based on the k-means method. (The mean of each cluster is marked by a +.) 2.2 K- Medoids This report recommends a new algorithm for K-medoids, which runs like the K-means algorithm. The algorithm proposed scans and calculates distance matrix, and use it for finding new medoids at every constant and repetitive step. The evaluation is based on real and artificial data and is compared with the results of the other algorithms. Here we are discussing the approach on k- medoids clustering, using the k-medoids algorithm. The algorithm is to be implemented on the dataset which consist of uncertain data. K-medoids are implemented because they to represent the centrally located objects called medoids in a cluster. Here the k-medoids algorithm is used to find the representative objects called the  medoids  in the dataset. Algorithm: k-medoids. PAM, a k-medoids algorithm for partitioning based on medoids or central objects. Input: k: the number of clusters, D: a data set containing n objects. Output: A set of k clusters. Method: (1) Arbitrarily choose k objects in D as the initial representative objects or seeds; (2) Repeat (3) Assign each remaining object to the cluster with the nearest representative object; (4) Randomly select a no representative object, o random; (5) Compute the total cost, S, of swapping representative object, oj, with o random; (6) If S (7) Until no change; Where E is the sum of the absolute error for all objects in the data set; p is the point in space representing a given object in cluster Cj; and oj is the representative object of Cj. In general, the algorithm iterates until, eventually, each representative object is actually the medoids, or most centrally located object, of its cluster. This is the basis of the k-medoids method for grouping n objects into k clusters.[6] 2.3 Distance Matrix An important step in most clustering is to select a  distance measure, which will determine how the  similarity  of two elements is calculated. Common distance metrics: Euclidean Manhattan Minkowski Hamming etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Here in our implementation we choose two distance matrix that you can see below with description. 2.3.1 Euclidean Distance Metric The  Euclidean distance  between points  p  and  q  is the length of the  line segment. In  Cartesian coordinates, if  p  =  (p1,  p2  pn) and q  =  (q1,  q2  qn) are two points in  Euclidean  n-space, then the distance from  p  to  q  is given by: 2.3.2 Manhattan Distance Metric The Manhattan (or taxicab) distance,  d1, between two vectors  in an n-dimensional  real  vector space  with fixed  Cartesian coordinate system, is the sum of the lengths of the projections of the  line segment  between the points onto the  coordinate axes. Section 3 Discussion In this section we are discussing about how Weka Machine learning work and how we implemented both k-means and k medoids algorithm. To implement these two algorithms we use Java and we are explaining how we implemented in java which function we use in order to implement these two algorithms. 3.1 Weka Machine Learning Weka is a machine learning software made using Java and many other languages. Weka has a collection of tools that are used to analyse the data that the user inputs in the form of dataset files. Weka supports more than four different input data formats. Weka uses an interactive GUI interface, which is easy for the user to use.  Ã‚  Weka provides the functionality for testing and visual aid options that can be used by the user to compare and sort the results. 3.2 Implementation In this section, we discuss about implementation of 2 clustering algorithms: K-Means and K-Medoids. Here, we use Object Oriented Programming to implement these 2 algorithms. The structure of program as below: There are 3 packages: K-Mean, K-Medoid, main. Files in K-Mean package: Centroid.java Cluster.java KMean_Algorithm.java KMean_Test.java KMean_UnitTest.java Files in K-Medoid package: KMedoid_Algorithm.java KMedoid_UnitTest.java Files in main package: Attribute.java DataPoint.java DistanceCalculation.java FileFilter.java MainFrame.java Utilities.jav There are some main functions implemented for clustering activity as below: 3.2.1 read_SVMLightFile_fill_up_missing_attribute() This function is about reading the SVM Light data file (.dat) and fill up all the missing attributes/values in data file before returning a Vector of data-points for clustering activity. 3.2.2 calculate_distance() This function is providing calculation according to the distance metric input in order to calculate distance between data objects for clustering activity. Overall, this function provides calculation for 3 different distance metrics as: Euclidean, Manhattan and Minkowski. 3.2.3 startClustering() This function is about running a particular clustering algorithm and returns a Vector of Clusters with their own data-points inside. All the steps of a particular clustering algorithm is implemented, here we implement K_Means and K_Medoids clustering algorithms. 3.2.4 calculateSumOfSquareError() This function is about calculating the total/sum square error for all the output clusters. By calling the function calculateSquareError() inside every cluster and sum up, the sum of Square Error will be calculated as long as the clustering activity finished. 3.2.5 calculateSumOfAbsoluteError() This function is about calculating the total/sum absolute error for all the output clusters. By calling the function calculateAbsoluteError() inside every cluster and sum up, the sum of Absolute Error will be calculated as long as the clustering activity finished. 3.2.6 toString() and main() The toString() function will return a string which represents the clustering output, including: total objects of every cluster, percent of object in every cluster, the error (such as: sum of square error or sum of absolute error), the centroid of every cluster and all the data-points clustered in the clusters. The main() function inside MainFrame.java class will allow to execute the GUI of the program, so users can interact with system by GUI instead of console or command-line. In this GUI, users can choose type of distance metric (such as Euclidean and Manhattan), Clustering algorithm (such as K-Means and K-Medoids) and enter input parameters such as number of clusters and number of iterations for clustering activity. Besides, users also can open any data file to view or modify and save before running clustering as well as export the original data file with missing attributes/values to new processed data file with all missing values filled up by zero (0). Section 4 Analysis In order to access the performance of the K-means k-medoids clusters, two dataset of analyses was carried out. The aim of this set to tests was provide an indicator as to how well the clusters performed using the k-means and k-medoids function. The tests were involved comparing the cluster to other cluster of various types provided within Weka cluster suite. The results are summarised throughout the remainder of this section. 4.1 Experiment (Facial Palsy dataset) results vs. Weka Here In this section how we did a comparison with our application algorithm vs. Weka you can see below. In this pattern we give iterations when we run a dataset with our application and Weka. Iterations: 10 >> 30 >> 50 >> 100 >> 200 >> 300 >> 400 >> 500 In this pattern we give a cluster when we run a dataset with our application and Weka. Clusters: 2 >> 3 >> 4 >> 5 After we run dataset with this format than each and every run we get result we combine that result, compare with Weka, we make a total of each and every column and come with average and we are displaying in table that you can see in below table. This Symbol is object. To see a result please click on this object it will show you result. We put as object because result is too big in size so we are not able to put in this A4 page. 4.2 Experiment (Stemming Question dataset) results vs. Weka Here In this section how we did a comparison with our application algorithm vs. Weka you can see below. In this pattern we give iterations when we run a dataset with our application and Weka. Iterations: 10 >> 30 >> 50 >> 100 >> 200 >> 300 >> 400 >> 500 In this pattern we give a cluster when we run a dataset with our application and Weka. Clusters: 2 >> 3 >> 4 >> 5 After we run dataset with this format than each and every run we get result we combine that result, compare with Weka, we make a total of each and every column and come with average and we are displaying in table that you can see in below table. This Symbol is object. To see a result please click on this object it will show you result. We put as object because result is too big in size so we are not able to put in this A4 page. Section 5 Conclusion In evaluating the performance of data mining techniques, in addition to predicative accuracy, some researchers have been done the importance of the explanatory nature of models and the need to reveal patterns that are valid, novel, useful and may be most importantly understandable and explainable. The K-means and k-medoids clusters achieved this by successfully clustering with facial palsy dataset. Which method is more robust-k-means or k-medoids? The k-medoids method is more robust than k-means in the presence of noise and outliers, because a medoids is less influenced by outliers or other extreme values than a mean. However, its processing is more costly than the k-means method. Both methods require the user to specify k, the number of clusters. Aside from using the mean or the medoids as a measure of cluster center, other alternative measures are also commonly used in partitioning clustering methods. The median can be used, resulting in the k-median method, where the median or middle value is taken for each ordered attribute. Alternatively, in the k-modes method, the most frequent value for each attribute is used. 5.1 Future Work The K-means algorithm can create some in efficiency as; it scans the dataset leaving some noise and outliners. These small flaws can be considered major to some of the users, but this doesnt means that the implementation can be prevented. It is always possible that sometimes the dataset is more efficient to follow other algorithms more efficiently, and the result distribution can be equal or acceptable. It is always advisable to make the dataset more efficient by removing unwanted attributes and more meaning full by pre-processing the nominal values to the numeric values. 5.2 Summery Throughout this report the k-mean and the k-medoids algorithms are implemented, which find the best result by scanning the dataset and creating clusters. The algorithm was developed using Java API and more Java classes.  

The Benefits of Aerobic, Resistance and Balance Exercises in the Geriat

Functionality means individual capabilities to carry out activities of daily life in a harmless and self-regulating way without being fatigue. Physical inactivity invites various problems in elderly individuals. The reasons of immobility in elderly people are poor health, hospitalization, and disability that reduce body’s muscle mass1. At the age of 50 years, minor reduction in muscle strength occurs and after the age of 65 years each decade it reduces 12% to 15% 2 .The study mentions that â€Å"Loss of muscle mass, particularly of fast-twitch or Type II fibers that accompany advanced age, is associated with muscle weakness, increased fatigability, and a loss of functional independency†1. Decreased muscle strength in elderly people which includes reduced muscle mass (atrophy) and decreased capacity to produce enough force that indirectly affects their ADL.1 Hence, Strength training plays an important role in elderly fitness programs. Impaired balance is major cause of f alls in elderly individuals and it is necessary to implement balance exercise in their daily life. As people get older, their aerobic capacity is reduced which is responsible for cardiac, pulmonary, and peripheral disease so, aerobic exercise helps geriatric people to improve their aerobic capacity.4 Need assessment: Older individuals suffer from various diseases like diabetes, heart diseases and stroke. According to National Diabetes Fact sheet (2011), â€Å"26.9% or 10.9 million of all people in age 65 years or older had diabetes in 2010†5. The CDC indicates that â€Å"seven of every 10 Americans die each year, or more than 1.7 million people die due to chronic disease†5 Numbers of elderly individuals are increasing rapidly. According to th... ...rowing crisis of chronic disease in United States, retrieved from http://www.fightchronicdisease.org/sites/fightchronicdisease.org/files/docs/GrowingCrisisofChronicDiseaseintheUSfactsheet_81009.pdf 7) Acampora, D., Friedkin, R., Nabors, J., Rizzo, JA., Tinetti, ME., & Williams,CS. (1998). Health care utilization and costs in a Medicare population by fall status. Medical Care 1998;36(8):1174–88. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9708590 8) Clark, J., & Jones, C.J. (1998). National standards for preparing senior fitness instructors. Journal of aging and Physical Activity: 6, 207-221 Jones, J., & Rikli, R. (1999). Development and validation of a functional fitness test for community-residing older adults. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 7, 129-161 http://www.dsnm.univr.it/documenti/OccorrenzaIns/matdid/matdid182478.pdf 9) ACSM guidelines textbook

Symbols and Symbolism Essay - Role of Symbolism in The Great Gatsby :: Great Gatsby Essays

The Crucial Role of Symbolism in The Great Gatsby The critic Harold Bloom once wrote, "Never has symbolism played such a crucial part in the very foundation of a novel as it does in Scott Fitzgerald's masterpiece, The Great Gatsby." The dictionary defines the word symbolism as, "The practice of representing things by means of symbols or of attributing symbolic meanings or significance to objects, events, or relationships." The novel takes place during the summer of 1922, in Long Island and New York City. Daisy and Tom introduce Nick to Jordan Baker, a beautiful female golfer who cheats at the game; Nick and she begin a relationship. Not long after they meet, Nick travels to New York City with Tom and Myrtle. Gatsby asks to speak to Jordan alone, and, through Jordan, Nick later learns more about his mysterious neighbor. Gatsby's extravagant lifestyle and wild parties are simply an attempt to impress Daisy. After an awkward reunion, Gatsby and Daisy restore their connection. Tom soon grows suspicious of his wife's relation ship with Gatsby. Daisy realizes that her marriage is to Tom, and Tom sends her back to East Egg with Gatsby, attempting to prove that Gatsby cannot hurt him. When Nick, Jordan, and Tom drive through the valley of ashes, however, they discover that Gatsby's car has hit and killed Myrtle, Tom's lover. They rush back to Long Island, where Nick learns from Gatsby that Daisy was driving the car when it struck Myrtle, but that Gatsby intends to take the blame. The next day, Tom tells Myrtle's husband, George, that Gatsby was the driver of the car. George then goes to find Gatsby; he finds him at his mansion and shoots him. An excellent example of symbolism in The Great Gatsby can be found in many places including, the ash heap, Gatsby's silk shirts, the green light, The Eyes of Doctor T. J. Eckleburg, and Gatsby's library. The eyes of Doctor T. J. Eckleburg are a pair of fading, "bespectacled" eyes painted on an old advertising billboard over the valley of ashes, "But above the grey land and the spasms of bleak dust which drift endlessly over it, you perceive, after a moment the eyes of Doctor T.

My First Day at Work

Will Fu Interactive: Core Lab 1 February 2010 Interface, defined by the dictionary as a common boundary or interconnection between systems, equipment, concepts, or human beings. It is what allows two very different objects to share a connection. How can the word interface be applied to exhibits at museums? I quickly realized that answer after paying a visit to the American Museum of Natural History. At the museum, there are these galleries consisting of various taxidermies of animals. Each animal had its own display case and the case was decorated and painted to look as close to its natural habitat as possible. As I stop to look at these animals in their display cases and appreciate the work that the artists put in to emulate its surroundings, I began to feel as if I am in the plains of Africa, standing next to a zebra, or in the deep woods of the Rocky Mountains in front of a Grizzly Bear. I began to imagine what it would be like if I were actually at these places that these animals lived. Then as I walk into the oceanic section, they had the same setup for the marine life. There was this particular showcase that for some reason was so powerful to me that it sent chills down my spine. It was of a whale and a giant squid tangled in a deep-sea battle. The longer I stared at it the more I felt this battle was actually happening in front of me as if any moment, these two animals going to come to life. The reason I chose to talk about these animal showcases is because the way that it made me feel. The animals posed so naturally and the realistic installations served as an interface between me and the deep-sea animals and the wildlife of the jungle. I think these showcases are good examples of interface in museums because it helped me visualize what these places are like in real life.

Input/Output Organization

INPUT/ outfit ORGANIZATION cominging I/O twirls I/O port wine Input/ issue mechanism retentivity-mapped I/O y pp / Programmed I/O stays Direct repositing Access B practices Synchronous good deal a synchronized Bus I/O in CO and O/S Programmed I/O fails DMA (Direct remembering Access) A batch is a shargond communicating link, which uses angiotensin-converting enzyme , rotary of wires to connect multiple sub trunks. The cardinal study advantages of the muckle organization atomic physical body 18 versatility and disordered bell. Accessing I/O catchs intimately roomrn computing machines use hit passenger car arrangement for connecting I/O plaits to mainframe computer & Memory The handler enables solely the inventions committed to it to exchange selective tuition Bus lies of 3 set of linages Address, information, fit mainframe places a lift officular shell out ( queer for an I/O Dev. ) on administer inceptions Device which recognizes t his extend responds to the see to its issued on the mark off paths mainframe collects for each memorialise / Write The information leave be placed on info patronages hardw atomic play 18 to connect I/O impostures to b t mass port Circuit Address De encipherr Control Circuits Data ushers stance regis establishs The Registers in I/O Interface pi voltaic pile and condition Flags in Status Registers like ug heapiness organisationss, SOUT Registers, SIN Data Registers, like Data-IN, Data-OUT I/O substance abuser interface for an arousal craft Memory Address central mainframe Data Control Address Add De economyrs Control C t l roofys Data d t t D t and lieu storys I/O /O Interface Input wile (s) p ( ) Input getup mechanism h i Memory mapped I/O Programmed I/O hampers DMA (Direct retrospection Access)A deal topology generally hold ups a set of deem direct contrasts and a set of information lines. The escort lines argon employ to aim indicates and ack right a substanceledgments, and to prefigure what grammatical face of information is on the driveive information lines. The catch lines atomic number 18 apply to destine what the passel contains and to implement the sightbar topology protocol. The selective information lines of the bus give birth information mingled with the source and the destination. This information whitethorn consist of selective information, complex commands, or utteres. Buses are traditionally classified as mainframe computer- retrospect di i ll l ifi d buses or I/O buses or modified purposed buses (Graphics, etc. ). mainframe computer reminiscence buses are short, generally tall gear locomote, and matched to the memory system so as to maximize memorycentral bear oning unit bandwidth. I/O b buses, b contrast, fundament be lengthy, can pass many by t t b l th h types of twistings affiliated to them, and often bedevil a considerable range in the selective inform ation bandwidth of the pulls connected to them. I/O buses do non typically interface like a shot to the memory simply use either a mainframe computer-memory or a backplane bus to connect to memory. The major disadvantage of a bus is that it creates a communication obstruct possibly limiting the maximum I/O bottleneck, byput.When I/O essential pass through a single bus, the bus bandwidth of that bus limits the maximum I/O throughput. Reason why b R h bus d i design is so serious i diffi lt the maximum bus speed is largely limited by physiologic factors the length of the bus and the number of crafts. These physical limits pr up to nowt us from playactning the bus arbitrarily debauched. In addition, the need to tide all oer a range of gizmos with widely varying latencies and entropy deepen casts overly makes bus design challenging. it becomes difficult to run many parallel wires at juicy speed due to clock reorient and reflection reflection.The two basic s hunnings for communication on the bus are synchronous and asynchronous. If a bus is synchronous (e. g. central central processing unit-memory), it includes a clock in the chair lines and a fixed protocol for communicating that is sexual intercourse to the clock. g This type of protocol can be implemented easily in a small finite kingdom machine. Because the protocol is pre regularized and involves little logic, the bus can run very fast and the interface logic testament be small. Synchronous buses have two major disadvantages First, every thingmajig on the bus must run at the similar clock rate. Second, because of clock skew problems, synchronous buses can non be long if they are fast. An A asynchronous b h bus i non clocked. It can gruntle a is t l k d d t wide variety of spins, and the bus can be lengthened without worrying about clock skew or synchronization problems. To arrange the contagion of info mingled with directer and receiver, an asynchronous bus uses a shake protocol. Three surplus defend lines required for hand-shaking ReadReq utilize to pick up a carry pray for memory. The distrisolelye is put on the information lines at the equivalent beat.DataRdy Used t i di t th t th d t D t Rd U d to indicate that the data word is now ready on the di d th data lines asserted by Output/Memory and Input/I_O Device. Ack Used to recognize the ReadReq or the DataRdy house of the parvenue(prenominal) party. I/O Dev. Memory Steps aft(prenominal) the cunning signals a bespeak by raising ReadReq and putting the lot on the Data lines 1. When memory sees the ReadReq line, it reads the address from the data bus and raises Ack to indicate it has been seen. 2. As the Ack line is uplifted I/O releases the ReadReq and data lines. g / q 3.Memory sees that ReadReq is beginning and drops the Ack line to experience the ReadReq signal (Mem. Reading in advancement now). 4. This step starts when the memory has the data ready. It places t he data from the read pass on on the data lines and raises DataRdy. 5. The I/O whatsis sees DataRdy, reads the data from the bus, and signals that it has the data by raising Ack. 6. On the Ack signal, M/M drops DataRdy, and releases the data lines. 7. Finally, the I/O twirl, seeing DataRdy go low, drops the Ack line, which indicates that the transmission is accomplished. Memory mapped I/O I/O stratagems and the memory share the said(prenominal) address spot the property, arrangement is called Memory-mapped I/O. In Memory-mapped I/O portions of address space are assigned to I/O wrenchs and reads and writes to those addresses are interpreted as commands to the I/O device. DATAIN is the address of the input buffer associated with the keyboard. Move DATAIN, R0 reads the data from DATAIN and stores them into mainframe computer read R0 Move R0, DATAOUT propels the limit of register R0 to side DATAOUT g Option of special I/O address space or incorporate as a part of memor y address space (address bus is same al steerings).When the central processor places the address and data on the memory bus, the memory system ignores the movement because the address indicates a portion of the memory space utilise for I/O. The device comptroller, however, sees the accomplishment, records the data, and transmits it to the device as a command. User weapons platforms are p p g prevented from issuing I/O g / works today because the OS does not provide adit to the address space assigned to the I/O devices and thus the addresses are protected by the address translation. Memory mapped I/O can also be used to transmit data by writing or reading to select addresses.The device uses the address to determine the type of command, and the data may be provided by a write or obtained by a read. A program pick up usually requires several separate I/O exertions. Further more than, the processor may have to interrogate the lieu of the device between individual commands t o determine whether the command effected success risey. DATAIN DATAOUT STATUS CONTROL 7 6 5 4 DIRQ KIRQ DEN mickle SOUT SIN 3 2 1 0 I/O operation involving keyboard and display devices Registers DATAIN, DATAOUT, STATUS, CONTROL Flags SIN, SOUT Provides perspective information for keyboard nd display unit KIRQ, DIRQ Keyboard, pompousness amputate demand bits DEN, KEN Keyboard, screening Enable bits Programmed I/O central affect unit has direct control over I/O S Sensing place i t t Read/write commands Transferring data CPU waits for I/O module to complete operation Wastes CPU time In this case, use utilise I/O focal point manual in the processor. These I/O operate operating instructions can declare both the device number and the command word (or the location of the command word in memory). The processor perishs the device address via a set of wires popularly included as part of the I/O bus.The actual command can be transmitted over the data lines in the bus. b us (example Intel IA-32) IA-32). By making the I/O instructions illegal to execute when not in kernel or supervisor elbow room user programs can be mode, prevented from accessing the devices at once. The process of headically checking post bits to see if it is time for the next I/O operation, is called polling. Polling is the easyst way for an I/O device to bring with the processor processor. The I/O device simply puts the information in a Status register, register and the processor must come and get the information.The processor is completely in control and does all the work. A ISA program to read one line from the keyboard, store it in memory buffer and echo it back to the display buffer, The disadvantage of polling is that it can waste a lot of processor time because processors are so more than faster than I/O devices devices. The processor may read the Status register many times, wholly to buzz off that the device has not yet stainless a comparatively slow I/O operat ion, or that the mouse has not budged since the last time it was polled.When the device completes an operation, we must s bowl read the status to determine whether it (I/O) was successful. Overhead in a polling interface travel by to the invention of frustrates to give the sack the processor when an I/O device requires worry from the processor. get around-driven I/O, snap off driven I/O employs I/O bring outs to indicate to the processor that an I/O device needs attention. When a device wants to notify the processor that it has finish some operation or needs attention, it causes the processor to be crashed.Interrupts I/O die mainframe When I/O Device is ready, it sends the INTERRUPT signal to processor via a dedicated control line Using ruin we are ideally eliminating WAIT period In solvent to the pick, the processor executes the Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) on the whole the registers flags program tallyer values are protected registers, flags, by the process or earlier footrace ISR The time required to save status & restore contrisolelye to instruction execution operating cost ? Interrupt Latency p y nterrupt-acknowledge signal I/O device interface p y accomplishes this by execution of an instruction in the frustrate-service flake (ISR) that accesses a status or data register in the device interface implicitly informs the device that its interrupt request has been recognized. IRQ signal is then removed by device. ISR is a sub-routine may belong to a diametrical user than the one macrocosm executed and then halted. The condition enter flags and the contents of any registers used by both the interrupted program and the interrupt-service interrupt service routine are relieve and restored restored.The concept of interrupts is used in operating systems and i many control applications, where processing of d in l li i h i f certain routines must be accurately timed relative to external events (e. g. real time processing). Interrup t Hardware p rob up Pull-up resister INTR = INTR1 +.. +INTR n INTR An equivalent electric circuit for an open drainpipe bus used to implement a open-drain ballpark interrupt-request line Interrupt Hardware Supply pp y R INTR Processor Pull-up resister INTR 1 INTR 2 INTR 3 INTR = INTR1 +.. +INTR n GND INTR Enabling and disable Interrupts Device activates interrupt signal line and waits with this signal activated until processors attends The interrupt signal line is active during execution of ISR and till the device caused interrupt is serviced Necessary to tell that the active signal does not lead to successive abatements (level-triggered input) ca utilize (level triggered the system to diminution in infinite loop. What if the same d i h h device i interrupts again, within an ISR ? i i hi Three methods of Controlling Interrupts (single device) Ignoring interrupt Disabling interrupts Special Interrupt request line Ignoring Interrupts Processor hardware ignores the inter rupt request line until the execution of the number one instruction of the ISR completed Using an interrupt disable instruction after the premiere signal instruction of the ISR no further interrupts A return from interrupt instruction is completed before further interruptions can give-up the g force Disabling Interrupts Processor automatically disables interrupts before starting the execution of the ISR The processor saves the contents of PC and PS (status register) before playing interrupt modify. The interrupt-enable is set to 0 no further interrupts allowed When return from interrupt instruction is executed the contents of the PS are restored from the stack, and the interrupt enable is set to 1 Special Interrupt line p p Special interrupt request line for which the interrupt treatment circuit responds tho t th l di h dli i it d l to the leading edge of d f the signal Edge triggered g gg Processor receives totally one request disregarding of how long the line is activated N separate i t No t interrupt di bli t disabling i t instructions charge sequence of events involved in handling an interrupt request from a single device. Assuming that interrupts are enabled, the hobby is a typical scenario 1. 1 The device raises an interrupt request request. 2. The processor interrupts the program soon being executed. t d 3. Interrupts are disabled by changing the control bits in the PS (except in the case of edge-triggered interrupts) interrupts). 4. The device is informed that its request has been recognized, and in response, it deactivates the interrupti d di d ti t th i t t request signal. . The action requested by the interrupt is performed by the interrupt-service routine. 6. Interrupts are enabled and execution of the interrupted program is resumed. Handling treble Devices Multiple devices can initiate interrupts p p They uses the common interrupt request line y p q Techniques are q Polling Vectored Interrupts p Interrupt Nesting Daisy Chaining y g Polling Scheme The IRQ (interrupt request) bit in the status register is set when a device is requesting an interrupt. The Interrupt service routine poll the I/O devices connected to the bus. The world-class device coming togethered with the IRQ bit set is serviced and the office is invoked. Easy to implement, but too much time spent on checking the IRQ bits of all devices, though some devices may not be requesting service. Vectored Interrupts Device requesting an interrupt identifies itself today to the processor The device sends a special code to the processor over the bus. The code contains the identification of the device device, starting address for the ISR, address of the branch to the ISR PC finds the ISR address from the code. To add flexibility for multiple devices comparable ISR is executed by the processor utilize a branch address to the suppress routine device specified Interrupt Vector. An interrupt vector is the memory address of an interrupt handler, or an index into an ramble called an interrupt vector slacken or dispatch slacken a table of interrupt vectors (pointers to routines that handle interrupts).Interrupt vector tables contain the memory addresses of interrupt handlers. When an interrupt is generated, the processor saves its execution state via a stage setting switch, and begins execution of the interrupt handler at the interrupt b i ti f th i t t h dl t th i t t vector. The Interrupt Descriptor Table ( p p (IDT) is particular to the ) p I386 architecture. It tells where the Interrupt Service Routines (ISR) are located. from each one interrupt number is reserved for a specific purpose. For example, 16 of the vectors are reserved for the 16 IRQ lines.Q On PCs, the interrupt vector table (IVT or IDT) consists of 256 4-byte pointers the first 32 (0-31 or 00-1F) of which are reserved f for processor exceptions the rest f for hardware interrupts, software product interrupts. This resides in the fi rst 1 K of addressable memory. Interrupt Nesting Pre-Emption of low antecedence Interrupt by other high Pre Emption priority interrupt is know as Interrupt nesting. Di bli Disabling I t Interrupts d i t during th execution of th ISR the ti f the may not opt devices which need immediate attention. Need a priority of IRQ devices and accepting IRQ from a high priority device. The priority level of the processor can be changed y y dynamically. The privileged instruction write in the PS (processor status word) that encodes the processors priority word), priority. Interrupt Nesting (contd. ) Pro ocessor INTR1 Device 1 INTA 1 Device 2 INTRp .. . Device p INTA p anteriority arbitration circuit Organizing I/O devices in a prioritized construction. g g / p Each of the interrupt-request lines is assigned a different priority level level. The processor is interrupted only by a high priority device. Daisy Chaining The interrupt request line INTR is common to all the devices The i nterrupt acknowledgement line INTA is connected to devices in a DAISY ambit way INTA propagates consecutively through the devices Device that is electrically closest to the processor gets high hi h priority i i Low priority device may have a danger of STARVATION INTR P Processor r Device D i 1 INTA Device D i 2 .. Device n D i Daisy Chaining with Priority Group Combining Daisy set uping and Interrupt nesting to form p priority multitude yg p Each base has different priority levels and within each group devices are connected in daisy orbit wayINTR1 Proc cessor Device 1 Device 1 INTA 1 INTR p . . . . Device D i 1 INTA p Priority arbitration circuit Device D i 1 Arrangement of priority groups Direct Memory Access (DMA) For I/O transportation, Processor determines the status of I/O devices, by Polling Waiting for Interrupt signal Considerable overhead is incurred in above I/O canalize processing To tilt large blocks of data at high Speed, between orthogonal devices & M ain Memory, DMA approach is often used DMA dominance allows data manoeuver directly between I/O device d i and d Memory, M with i h minimal i l intervention i i of f processor. Direct Memory Access (DMA) DMA controller acts as a Processor, but it is controlled by CPU To initiate transfer of a block of words, the processor sends the following data to controller The starting address of the memory block The word count h d Control to specify the mode of transfer such(prenominal) as read or write A control to start the DMA transfer DMA controller performs the requested I/O operation and sends a interrupt to the processor upon effect 1 Status and Control beginning address Word count In ? ? ? IRQ 30 IE 1 R/W 0 Done DMA interface g g First register stores the starting address Second register stores Word count Third register contains status and control flags Bits and Flags R/W Done IRQ IE 1 order Data transfer finishes Interrupt request Raise interrupt (enable) after Data Transf er 0 WRITE Processor Main memory disk/DMA controller DMA controller Printer Keyboard Disk Disk Network Interface Use of DMA ascendance in a computer system Memory accesses by the processor and DMA ascendence are interwoven DMA devices have higher(prenominal) priority then processor over BUS control rhythm method of birth control larceny- DMA Controller steals memory cycles from processor, though processor originates most(prenominal) memory access. Block or Burst mode- The of data without interruption Conflicts in DMA Processor and DMA, Two DMA controllers, try to use the Bus at the same time to access the main memory DMA controller may given exclusive access to the main memory to transfer a blockDMA and Interrupt Breakpoints During D i an I t Instruction Cycle ti C l Bus Arbitration Bus hold in device that initiates data transfers on the bus. The next device can wages control of the bus after the current quash relinquishes control Bus Arbitration process by which the next device to become master is selected Centralized and Distributed Arbitration BBSY P Processor r BR BG1 DMA controller 1 BG2 DMA controller 2 A simple arrangement for bus arbitration using a daisy chain BR (bus request ) line open drain line the signal on this line is a logical OR of the bus request from all the g q DMA devices BG (bus grant) line processor activates this line indicating (acknowledging) to all the DMA devices (connected in daisy chain fashion) that the BUS may be used when its free free. BBSY (bus busy) line open collector line the current bus master i di b indicates d i devices that i i currently using h it is l i the bus by signaling this line BBSY Processor BR BG1 DMA controller 1 BG2DMA controller 2 Sequence of signals during data transfer of bus mastership Centralized Arbitration smash unit (bus arbitration circuitry) connected to the bus Processor is normally the bus master, unless it grants bus mastership to DMA For the timing/control, in previous sheer DMA controller 2 requests and acquires bus mastership and after releases the bus. During its tenure as the bus master, it may perform one or more data transfer operations, depending on whether it is p , p g operating in the cycle stealing or block mode.After it releases the bus, the processor resumes bus mastership. Distributed Arbitration alone devices waiting to use the bus has to carry out the arbitration process no central arbiter Each device on the bus is assigned with a identification number 4-bit One or more devices request the bus by asserting q y g the start-arbitration signal and place their identification number on the four open collector lines ARB0 through ARB3 are the four open collector lines One among the four is selected using the code on the lines and one with the highest ID numberA distributed arbitration scheme Assume that two devices, A and B, having ID numbers game 5 and 6, respectively, are requesting the use of the bus. Device A transm its the warning 0101, and device B transmits the practice 0110. p The code seen by both devices is 0111. Each device compares the pattern on the arbitration lines to its own ID, starting from the most significant bit. If it detects a dissimilitude at any bit position, it disables its drivers at that bit position and for all lower-order bits. It does so by placing a 0 at the input of these drivers drivers.In the case of our example, device A detects a difference on line ARB I. Hence, it disables its drivers on diff li I H i di bl i d i lines ARB 1 and ARBO. This causes the pattern on the arbitration lines to change to 0110, which kernel that B has won the contention. Universal incidental Bus (USB) The USB supports two speeds of operation called lowoperation, low speed (1. 5 megabits/s) and full-speed (12 megabits/s). The Th most recent revision of the bus stipulation (USB i i f h b ifi i 2. 0) introduced a tercet speed of operation, called high-speed (480 megabits/s).The USB ha s been designed to jibe several key objectives -P Provide a simple, low-cost, and easy to use interconnection id i l l t d t i t ti system that overcomes the difficulties due to the limited number of I/O ports available on a computer Accommodate a wide range of data transfer characteristics for I/O devices, including telephone and meshwork connections / , g p Enhance user convenience through a plug-and-play mode of operation USB Bandwidths A low-speed rate of 1. 5 Mbit/s (183 kB/s) is defined by USB 1. 0.It is intended primarily to save cost in lowbandwidth human interface devices (HID) such as keyboards, ( ) y , mice, and joysticks. The full-speed rate of 12 Mbit/s (1. 43 MB/s) is the full speed ( 1. 43 basic USB data rate defined by USB 1. 1. All USB hubs support full-bandwidth. A high-speed (USB 2. 0) rate of 480 Mbit/s (57 MB/s) was introduced in 2001. All hi-speed devices are capable of go back to full bandwidth operation if required they are full-bandwidth backward compa tible. Connectors are identical. SuperSpeed ( d (USB 3. 0) rate produces upto 4800 Mbit/s ) d bi / (572 MB/s or 5 Gbps)Each node of the tree has a device called a hub, which acts as an intermediate control point between the array and the I/0 devices devices. At the root of the tree, a root hub connects the entire tree to the entertain computer. The leaves of the tree are the I/0 p / devices being served. The tree structure enables many devices to be connected eon using only simple point-topoint serial links. Each hub has a number of ports where devices may be connected, including other hubs. In normal operation, a hub g copies a subject matter that it receives from its upstream connection to all its downstream ports.As A a result, a mental object sent b the soldiery computer is lt t by th h t t i circularize to all I/O devices, but only the addressed device will respond to that message. A message from an I/O device is sent only upstream towards the root of the tree and is no t seen by other devices. Hence, th USB enables th h t t communicate with the I/O H the bl the host to i t ith th devices, but it does not enable these devices to communicate with each other. The USB operates strictly on the basis of polling. A device may send a message only in response to a poll message from the host host.Hence, upstream messages do not encounter conflicts or interfere with each other, as no two devices can send other messages at the same time. This limitation allows hubs to be simple, low-cost devices. USB protocol requires that a message transmitted on a highspeed link is always transmitted p y at high speed, even when the ultimate receiver is a low-speed device. device Hence, a message intended for device D is sent at high speed from the root hub to hub A, then A forwarded at low speed to device D. The latter transfer will take a long time, during which highl ti d i hi h hi h speed traffic to other nodes is allowed to continue.Each device on the USB, whether it is a hub or an I/O device, is assigned a 7-bit address. This address is local to the USB tree and is not related in any way to the addresses used on the processor bus. A hub may have any number of devices or other hubs connected to it, and addresses are assigned arbitrarily. When a device is first connected to a hub, or when it is power on, it has the address 0. The hardware of the hub to which this device is connected is capable of detecting that the device has been connected, and it records this f d hi fact as part of i own status i f f its information. Periodically, the host polls each hub to collect status information and learn about new devices that may have been added or disconnected. When the host is informed that a new device has been connected, connected it uses a sequence of commands to send a reset signal on the corresponding hub port, read information from the device about its capabilities, send configuration information to the device, and assign the device a unique USB address. O d i d i th d i i dd Once this thi sequence is completed the device begins normal operation and responds only to the new address. Read about USB protocols isochronous traffic on USB and USB FRAME